Book Reviews
1) Tichotsky, John, Russia’s Diamond Colony: The Republic of Sakha, Amsterdam: Harwood Academy Publishers, 2000.
John Tichotsky’s, Russia's Diamond Colony: The Republic of
Sakha is a well written work of the economic history of the Republic of
Sakha since the days of Tsarist occupation to the last decades of the twentieth
century. Even though Sakha's economy is the main theme of this work, it also
covers other aspects of the Sakha story such as its history, geography and
demography. Tichotsky's, Russia’s Diamond
Colony is one of the rarest works which is written in English about the
Sakha Republic. Russia’s Diamond Colony
discusses in quite detail about gold, diamond and petroleum industries of the Sakha
Republic. Tichotsky shows, how federal government used the natural resources of
the Sakha Republic for its own advantage. Russia’s
Diamond Colony discusses about the potential markets for the Sakha’s
natural resources and major threats
faced by the Sakha’s mining industries. Tichotsky also tried to find reasons
behind the economic backwardness of this resource rich region.
Russia’s
Diamond Colony invites readers’ attention to the rough
and hostile terrain of the Sakha Republic. A significant portion of the Sakha
Republic lies inside the Arctic Circle. It makes some parts of the Sakha
Republic are the coldest settled area of the world. Sakha Republic is also the
biggest republic of the Russian Federation and it is also the biggest sub national
unity of any countries of the World. Sakha Republic literally has all elements
of the periodic table and is one of the biggest producers of rough diamond
(around one third of the world and 99 percentage of the Russia’s production).
Sakha Republic also has significant natural gas deposits. However, Sakha
Republic is still remained as one of the backward regions of the Russian
Federation. Sakha Republic’s population density is still low and further
challenged by the disintegration of the Soviet Union. Tichotsky accuses Moscow
for using Sakha as a colony for raw materials. At the same time the Russia’s Diamond Colony shows Sakha
authorities better command over its resources and economy than under the Soviet
Union.
The modern history of
Sakha Republic began with the establishment of Yakutsk in 17th century
by the Russian Cossacks. Before the advent of Russians, the territory of Sakha
Republic was already occupied by the Sakha people (Yakuts). Sakha people were
regarded as the descendants of the nomadic Central Asians who primarily raised
horses. Sakha people appeared in this part of the world in and around 12th
to 15th century. Sakha people already pushed the indigenous people
of the Siberia such as Evenki, Even and Yukagir into the further north. Sakha
people remained as the people of grasslands and indigenous people continued as
hunters and reindeer herders. As Tichotsky points, the Russian settlers used
Sakha Republic primarily as a tax collecting region (tax in the form of fur).
The second part of the 19th century witnessed the arrival of gold
prospectors into the region in search of gold. Still Russian population
remained low primarily in the urban centers of the Sakha Republic.
However, the Soviet
period witnessed major changes in the socio – economic life of the Sakha
Republic. Soviets established Yakut Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic
(YASSR). Stalin period also witnessed the collectivization and settlement of
Sakha people and indigenous reindeer herders of the north. The collectivization
of Sakha Republic took long time in comparison with other parts of the USSR.
Tichotsky argues that the remoteness, large size and sparse population of the
republic played a major role in this outcome. But major changes happened to the
Sakha Republic in the field of industries primarily mining. Stalin promoted
large scale of gold mining in the North Eastern part of the Republic. Soviet
state tried to bring gold production under the government control instead of
private gold prospectors. Tichotsky points towards the Communist state’s
compromise with the private prospectors. Even though Sakha gold helped the Soviet
state’s economy but it never brought any significant prosperity to the Sakha Republic.
Krushchev period witnessed another major mineral invention in the South Western
part of the Sakha Republic, diamond.
Russia’s
Diamond Colony describes the importance of diamond in
the economy of Sakha Republic. According to Tichotsky Sakha diamond made Russia
a major player in the world diamond market. Tichotsky also shows how did Soviet
government secretly traded with the South African diamond cartel, De Beer without
any attention from the West. Russia remained as a trusted partner of De Beer in
the entire Soviet period. But this equation changed under the new Russian
Federation. The general uncertainty of the post – Soviet period negatively
influenced the diamond trade too. The government of Sakha under Mikhail
Nikolaev claimed more control over the natural resources of the region
especially diamond. Like other republics of the Russian Federation, Sakha
Republic also witnessed strong sovereignty movements during this time. Russian
federal government was not in a position to control these threats, but Russian
President, Boris Yeltsin was able to pacify the sovereignty movements with the
help of the Sakha President, Nikolaev. Tichotsky rightly observes that the
unique relationship between the federal and the republican governments under
Yeltsin :
Sakha today is a hybrid between a Sovnarkhoz, and an American state in its
relationship with the federal government. Sovereignty of American states and
states rights are usually associated with populist rights against the elitism
of the federal government. Sakha’s sovereignty, unlike that of American states,
is not a populist sovereignty. Sakha’s sovereignty can be better compared to an
exclusive territory granted by Russia’s President Yeltsin to a loyal ally,
Sakha’s President Nikolaev (p.58).
Whatever it is Sakha
Republic was more economically stable than the other republics of the Russian
Federation due to its diamond wealth. Diamond also helped the republican
government in bargain with the federal government. The final chapters of the Russia’s Diamond Colony discusses about the privatization in Russia in general and
Sakha in particular. In this part, Tichotsky makes a serious observation that,
in contrast to the West, in Russia, government still controls all profitable
industries. So mining industries of Sakha is still under the government
control. Tichotsky points that it discourages the foreign investors to invest
in Sakha Republic. In agriculture sector only cattle were privatized and horses
and reindeer are not fully privatized. Tichotsky also points towards the
colonial attitude of the empowered Sakha people towards the indigenous people
of the North. Tichotsky justifies his stand with the support of a popular
saying that: “the middle brother (Sakha) is worse than the older brother (Russian).”
Tichotsky found only other industry which can challenge diamond industry is the
oil and natural gas industry. But again lack of privatization in this field
also troubles the development of it to its maximum potential. Tichotsky opines
that the Eastern Asia is going to be the major beneficiaries of the further
expansion of oil and gas industry in the Sakha Republic. Sakha – Japan or Sakha
– Korea pipeline may completely change the economy of this part of Russia.
Tichotsky makes lots of
valid observation in his book, Russia’s
Diamond Colony. For example, he finds that the lack of privatization is the
major weakness of the Sakha industry. Underdeveloped nature of infrastructure
is another weakness. But at the same time, Tichotsky appreciates Sakha
government for its effort to gain a partial control over the republic’s
industries. Tichotsky also warns both the republican and the federal governments
about the closed nature of their economy. Tichotsky argues that the closed
economy never improves the life of the common masses. Tichotsky suggests the
Sakha government to utilize its diamond revenue for the improvement of the life
of the citizens.
Tichotsky did a wonderful
job with this largely unexploited topic. Russia’s
Diamond Colony is quite comprehensive with detailed charts and diagrams.
Book also has detailed appendixes too. Tichotsky’s Russian background helps him
to make wonderful observations. But I feel that the recent developments under
Vladimir Putin can only makes this study complete.
2 ) Jordan Bella Bychkova & Terry
G. Jordan – Bychkov, Siberian Village:
Land and Life in the Sakha Republic, Minneapolis: University of Minnesota
Press, 2001.
Terry Jordan’s Siberian Village is a study of village
named Djarkhan, which is located in the Central Yakut Plain of the Sakha
Republic. The author linked to the village through his wife, Bella Bychkova
Jordan, an ethnic Sakha from Djarkhan. The study conducted in the middle of the
1990s when Russia was passing through a difficult time. Readers can see the
reverberations of those difficulties in this work. Through Siberian Village, Terry Jordan tries to say the story of Sakha
Republic in general and the village life of the Sakha people in particular.
Sakha people (Yakuts) are the single largest ethnic group of the Sakha
Republic. Sakha Republic also has significant Russian minority. Besides these
two major groups, the northern part of the Sakha Republic is also home for
ethnic groups such as Even, Evenki, Chukchi and Yukagir.
The chapter 1 of the Siberian Village gives a general
introduction to the history of Sakha Republic. Here, Jordan tries to remind
readers about the unique nature of Siberian lands. Russians and other non –
native people find Siberia is always as a land of snow and myth. Or, in other words,
a land which is exotic and foreign to them. But for natives of Siberia, their
land is not at all exotic or peripheral but central to their life. Natives of
Siberia find meanings to all aspects of Siberian life. The Chapter discusses
the history of Sakha Republic and its various Ethnic groups. The chapter also
gives an insight into the economy and political life of Sakha Republic. In this
chapter, Terry Jordan reminds readers that how modern Sakha Republic is by
showing the cultural life of Yakutsk, the capital of the Sakha Republic.
The Chapter 2 discusses
primarily about the village called Djarkhan. Jordan describes about the major
geographical features of the village such as alases (grasslands), taiga (forest), soil and settlements. The
chapter also covers the various seasons of the Djarkhand and it shows how harsh
is the climate of the Sakha Republic. Through this chapter, Jordan also
introduces us into the ordinary life people of the village. The chapter 3
discusses the traditional life of the Sakha people. It also discusses in short
about the history of Sakha people until the Soviet time. According to Terry, Sakha
people believe that their origin was further south in the steppe lands. The importances
for horse in Sakha life justify this notion. Then Sakha people were defeated by
Buriats and it forced them to move to further north. Sakha people established
themselves in the Central Yakut Plain at the expense of the Indigenous people
such as Evenki. Russians followed Sakha people into the same land with their
very different lifestyle and material culture. The chapter discusses about the
traditional clan systems existed among the Sakha people (Sakha clans were known
as aga – usa). In the traditional
Sakha life, there were no villages or permanent settlements. Sakha was semi –
nomadic like their Central Asian ancestors. They were a kind of Christians with
very predominant Shamanic beliefs. Again Terry finds many of the Sakha people
converted to Christianity for getting exemption from taxes and fur – tributes.
The Chapter 4 tells the
story of Soviet period. Soviet period witnessed the collectivization and
formation of various permanent Sakha villages such as Djarkhan. According to
Terry most of the Sakha people found Communism and ‘Sovietization’ as another Russian
experiment just as Christianity in the earlier centuries. The Soviet period
completely changed the Sakha way of life. Now onwards cattle started to
predominate in the life of the Sakha people instead of horses. Soviets also
introduced modern agricultural techniques into the Sakha Republic and village
such as Djarkhan witnessed large scale improvements in their life. Jordan
describes the period between 1966 – 1991 as ‘golden age’ for the Djarkhan
village. The Soviet period converted Sakha people from herders to modern
farmers. Still Communism could not able to destroy the Sakha identity which is
primarily based on the Sakha language and traditions.
The post – Soviet
period witnessed the collapse of the economy in Djarkhan just like other parts
of the Russian Federation. The Soviet collapse hit commercial farming quite
badly. State farms were dissolved and ownership of animals turned into private.
The commercial farming gave way to the subsistence farming. The living standard
of the majority of the Sakha people came down just like other citizens of the
Soviet Union. But, still few of them prospered. This general decline led to the
revival of indigenous traditions which was suppressed under the Communist rule.
But Jordan did not see any complete return of Djarkhan villagers to their pre-
revolutionary life. But their Sakha identity is getting more recognition and
respect in the post – Soviet period. Jordan also concerns about the
vulnerability of Sakha villages such as Djarkhan with its low population and migration
of young people. Sakha villages are the reservoir of Sakha culture and
identity. In contrast, the city spaces of Sakha Republic such as Yakutsk and
Mirny regarded as Rusian places. So Jordan encourages Sakha government to
support Sakha villages to preserve their culture and through that the cultural
identity of the Sakha people.
Jordan’s Siberian Village is really well written
work with lots of photographs and maps. It gives readers clear idea about the
life of a modern Siberian village. We may surprise how modern their life is.
But Jordan discusses little about inter – ethnic relations of the Sakha
Republic. I think that is quite important for the better understanding.
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